August 2020 Science and Technology

Sakshi Education

Scientists convert tamarind waste and cotton waste to supercapacitor
Scientists at the International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy & New Materials (ARCI), under Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, have developed a cost-effective electrode material for making affordable supercapacitor devices, from waste biomass like tamarind seeds and industrial cotton waste.

With this discovery, tamarind seeds and cotton waste may soon be used to make low-cost supercapacitors for energy storage. The scientists have used waste biomass to develop materials for making cost-effective supercapacitor devices.

Highlights:
The scientists have converted the waste materials into highly porous carbon fibres by activation process. It was then utilised the porous carbon fibres to make high-performance supercapacitor electrodes.

The electrode materials are made from biomass waste. It was tested with the help of a rapid testing protocol developed by Scientists at Centre for Fuel Cell Technology, ARCI-Chennai to evaluate different porous electrode materials for their suitability in supercapacitors.

The method involves Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and records the impedance offered by a material under a small perturbation and the capacitance was formed by the arrangement of electrolyte ions over the electrode surface, which is called as double-layer capacitance.

The scientists tested the pore characteristics and stability of the activated carbon material prepared from tamarind seed and its suitability for supercapacitor application.

The Dynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (DEIS) results that are observed by the ARCI team showed a superior double layer capacitance value at all the applied potentials for the optimized sample with high surface area (2645 m2 g-1) within 1 hour of the experiment, validating that the material could be used for supercapacitor electrode.

It is expected that this will respond to the intense hunt for supercapacitor materials to meet the widespread demand for supercapacitors.

This discovery can pave the way towards affordable electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles which bank on supercapacitors significantly for their application in braking systems and start-stop cycles.
Star Formation in Dwarf Galaxies
Astronomers from the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) have found out the reasons behind intense star formation in some dwarf galaxies.

ARIES is an autonomous institute of Department of Science & Technology (DST).

Key Points
Amidst the billions of galaxies in the universe, a large number are tiny ones - 100 times less massive than the Milky-way galaxy. Most of these are called dwarf galaxies and form stars at a much slower rate than the massive ones.

Dwarf galaxies are the most abundant type of galaxy in the universe but are difficult to detect due to their low luminosity, low mass and small size.

However, some dwarf galaxies have been seen forming new stars at a mass-normalized rate i.e. 10-100 times more than that of the Milky-way galaxy.

The star-formation activities do not last longer than a few tens of million-years, a period which is much shorter than the age of these galaxies - typically a few billion years.
Early Galaxy Detected by AstroSat
A team of Scientists from the Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) has discovered one of the earliest galaxies called AUDFs01 using AstroSat.

The galaxy is located in the Hubble Extreme Deep field, 9.3 billion light-years away from Earth.

The team comprises scientists from India, Switzerland, France, USA, Japan and Netherlands.

Key Points
The galaxy was discovered using UltraViolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on Astrosat. AstroSat detected Extreme Ultraviolet light from the galaxy.

Earlier, NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which is significantly larger than UVIT, did not detect any UV emission from this galaxy because it is too faint.

AstroSat/UVIT was able to achieve this unique feat because the background noise in the UVIT detector is much less than the ones on HST.

These observations lasted for more than 28 hours in October 2016, but it took nearly two years since then to carefully analyse the data to ascertain that the emission is indeed from the galaxy.
Asteroid 2018VP1 is on a collision course with Earth
According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), an asteroid named 2018VP1 is on a collision course with Earth.

Key Points
Asteroid 2018VP1 has a diameter of about 2 metres, around the size of a small automobile.

Only 1 in 240 chance that 2018VP1 would impact the Earth. It would likely burn up into a fireball after entering the Earth’s atmosphere before reaching the ground.

According to NASA, such an event happens about once every year.

Asteroid Collision with Earth:
Objects that can cause significant damage upon impact are larger than 30 metres.

As per NASA’s Near-Earth Object Observations Programme, asteroids that are 140 metres or larger (bigger than a small football stadium) are of “the greatest concern” due to the level of devastation their impact is capable of causing.

No asteroid larger than 140 metres has a “significant” chance of hitting the Earth for the next 100 years.

The ChicxulubImpactor was an asteroid that caused the sudden extinction of most dinosaur species 66 million years ago,

It had a diameter of over 10 kilometres.
Controlling Dengue Using Bacteria
Researchers from the World Mosquito Program have used mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia bacteria to successfully control dengue in Yogyakarta city of Indonesia.

The World Mosquito Program is an Australia-based not-for-profit initiative that exists to protect the global community from mosquito-borne diseases.

Key Points
The Aedes aegypti mosquito, that spreads Dengue and other diseases such as chikungunya, Zika and yellow fever cannot do so when they are artificially infected with a bacterium, Wolbachia.

The bacteria Wolbachia “inhibits” viral infection, that is, even if people encounter mosquito bite, they will not be infected. This happens because bacteria do not allow the virus to replicate in the mosquito thereby minimising its number within the mosquito.

The scientists infected some mosquitoes with Wolbachia and then released these in the city where they bred with local mosquitoes, until nearly all mosquitoes in the area were carrying Wolbachia bacteria. This is called the Population Replacement Strategy.

At the end of 27 months, the researchers found that the incidence of dengue was 77% lower in areas where Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes had been released, as compared to areas without such deployments.

This method does not only block Dengue Virus but also many other viruses present in mosquitoes.

A French company InnovaFeed, which produces insects to feed livestock, is partnering with WMP to develop the first industrial-level production of Dengue- controlling mosquitoes.

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) also has been working on a similar project developing a strain of Aedesaegypti containing Wolbachia, known as Puducherry Strain.

The strain was developed at the Vector Control Research Centre (VCRC), Puducherry in collaboration with Monash University in Australia
SalivaDirect: Covid-19 Test
The USA Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorised the emergency use of a new saliva-based laboratory diagnostic test for Covid-19 - ‘SalivaDirect’.

Highlights:
A new rapid diagnostic test called SalivaDirect, for the novel coronavirus, that uses saliva samples was granted an emergency use authorisation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

It is an inexpensive test, developed by a team from the Yale School of Public Health.

Collecting and testing saliva samples involves three steps — collecting saliva without preservative buffers, proteinase K treatment and heat inactivation, and dualplex RT-qPCR virus detection.

Significance:
It has high sensitivity and can detect the virus even when the number of virus copies in the saliva sample is as low as 6-12 copies per microlitre.

According to a preprint, the sensitivity of the new test is about 93%.

In contrast, tests using nasopharyngeal swabs lead to false negative results due to errors at the time of sample collection.

The new test makes sample collection non-invasive and reduces the need for trained healthcare workers to collect the samples.

This reduces the risk of infection during collection.

The easier saliva test is likely to increase testing compliance. It can allow for at-home, self-administered sample collection for accurate large-scale SARS-CoV-2 testing.
Sarabhai Crater
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has named a crater captured by Chandrayaan 2 Orbiter after Vikram Sarabhai.

Sarabhai Crater
“Sarabhai” Crater is named after Dr Vikram Sarabhai and around 250 to 300 kilometres east of this Crater is where the Apollo 17 and Luna 21 Missions had landed.

The crater captured in 3D images shows that the Crater has a depth of around 1.7 Kms taken from its raised rim and the slope of Crater walls is in between 25 to 35 degree.

These findings will help the Space Scientists to understand further the process of the lunar region filled with lava.

Background:
Sarabhai was an Indian physicist and astronomer who initiated space research and helped develop nuclear power in India.

He is internationally regarded as the Father of the Indian Space Program.

Known as the cradle of space sciences in India, the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) was founded in 1947 by him. He was the founder of ISRO.

He started a project for the fabrication and launch of an Indian satellite.

As a result, the first Indian satellite, Aryabhata, was put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian cosmodrome.
Scientists found that the Dwarf planet Ceres is now an Ocean world
Researchers have stated that Ceres looks like an “Ocean World”. The scientist stated after analyzing the data collected by NASA’s Dawn spacecraft. The dwarf planet Ceres lies in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter and is also the largest object in that belt. The scientist is trying to search for a possibility of the presence of water in Ceres.

Exploration Ceres:
Ceres was first spotted by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801. It was assumed that Ceres was the missing planet between Mars and Jupiter. In the year 2006, Ceres was classified as a dwarf planet. It is the first dwarf planet to be orbited by a spacecraft. In 2015, NASA’s Dawn reached it to study its surface, composition, and history.

The spacecraft Dawn was launched in 2007. It visited Vesta and Ceres. In 2015, the spacecraft went into the orbit around Ceres. The information that was collected reinforced the idea that dwarf planets could have hosted oceans over a significant part of their history. The Dawn mission concluded in 2018.

Dwarf planet:
There are officially five dwarf planets in the Solar System. The most famous dwarf planet is Pluto, downgraded from the status of a planet in 2006.

The other four dwarf planets, in the order of size, are Eris, Makemake, Haumea, and Ceres. The sixth claimant for a dwarf planet is Hygiea, which so far has been taken to be an asteroid.
ISA to organize the First World Solar Technology Summit
International Solar Alliance (ISA) is to organize the First World Solar Technology Summit on a virtual platform on 8th September 2020. Prime Minister Narendra Modi will deliver the inaugural address of the First World Solar Technology Summit.

Highlights:
The objective of the First World Solar Technology Summit is to bring the spotlight on state-of-the-art technologies and next-generation technologies which will provide impetus to the efforts towards harnessing solar energy more efficiently.

ISA is expected to launch the ISA Journal on Solar Energy, I JOSE, which will help authors from across the globe to publish their articles on solar energy.

Laureates including Dr. M. Stanley Whittingham will participate in the summit.

The summit will hold four technical sessions in different languages namely English, Spanish, French & Arabic. The topic will be Vision 2030 & Beyond, Towards a Decarbonised Grid, Disruptive Solar Technologies, and Solar Beyond the Power Sector.
Invisible Shield against Electromagnetic Interference
Recently, scientists from the Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences (CeNS), Bengaluru, have designed a metal mesh structure to construct an invisible shield against Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).

CeNS is an autonomous institute under the Department of Science & Technology, Government of India.

Key Points
The scientists have developed a copper metal mesh on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) sheet, instead of continuous film, which exhibits a visible transmittance of about 85%.

Transmittance describes how much light passes through a sample. In other words, it is light that is not absorbed, scattered, or reflected. It is usually measured in percentage.

The metal mesh networks on the substrate are more transparent than continuous film because it covers only 7% area of the substrate, unlike 100% coverage of continuous film.

Metal mesh provides better electromagnetic shielding compared to the same thickness of continuous metal film where transparency can be compromised.
Odisha government announced to give facelift to the 11th century Lingaraj Temple
The Odisha government has announced to give a facelift to the 11th century Lingaraj Temple, akin to its pre-350-year structural status.

BACKGROUND:
Lingaraja Temple is a temple dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.

It represents the quintessence of the Kalinga Architecture and culminating the medieval stages of the architectural tradition at Bhubaneswar.

The temple is believed to be built by the kings from the Somavamsi dynasty, with later additions from the Ganga rulers.

It is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings), each increasing in the height to its predecessor.

Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraja was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra) as noted in Ekamra Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit treatise.

The temple has images of Vishnu, possibly because of the rising prominence of Jagannath sect emanating from the Ganga rulers who built the Jagannath Temple in Puri in the 12th century.
Sun’s coronal magnetic field measured
An international team of solar physicists have measured the global magnetic field of the sun’s corona, or outer atmosphere, for the very first time.

Details:
This development could help answer some of the solar phenomena.

Temperature profile of the sun:
The core of the Sun is at a temperature of about 15 million degrees, while its outer layer, the photosphere is only 5700 degrees hot. The sun’s corona or outer atmosphere, which stretches up to several million kilometres beyond its surface, is much hotter than the surface (one million degrees or more).

This is unusual given that while the surface is cooler than the interior, the atmosphere of the Sun (corona) rises substantially.

Popular explanations with respect to the coronal heating involve the magnetic field of the corona.

Solar eruptions:
The surface of the Sun is dynamic. There are multiple mechanisms of eruptions of the Sun, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

A solar flare is a sudden flash of increased brightness on the Sun, usually observed near its surface.

A coronal mass ejection is a significant release of plasma and accompanying magnetic field from the solar corona.

Magnetic reconnection:
Magnetic reconnection is a process where opposite polarity magnetic field lines connect and some of the magnetic energy is converted to heat energy and also kinetic energy which leads to the generation of heating, solar flares, solar jets, etc.
Blockchain Technology in Voting
Election Commission (EC) officials are exploring the potential of using blockchain technology to enable remote voting. The aim is to overcome the geographical hurdles in voting.

Remote voting may take place in person somewhere other than an assigned polling station or at another time, or votes may be sent by post or cast by an appointed proxy.

There have been demands from various political parties that the EC should ensure that migrant workers who miss out on voting, as they cannot afford going home during elections to exercise their franchise, should be allowed to vote for their constituency from the city they are working in.

Key Points
Blockchain Technology:
Blockchain is a system in which the database of recordings (a ‘chain’) appears on multiple computers at the same time even as it is updated with any new digital information (‘a block’).

It offers a singular combination of permanent and tamper-evident record keeping, real-time transaction transparency and auditability.

The initial and primary use of blockchain technology was for monitoring cryptocurrency (e.g. bitcoin) transactions. However, other usage and applications have emerged in the last few years.

The government of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have put the land records on the blockchain technology owing to its easy traceability feature.

Blockchain Technology in Voting:
Growing concern over election security, voter registration integrity, poll accessibility, and voter turnout has led governments to consider blockchain-based voting platforms as a means to increase faith and participation in essential democratic processes.

Electronic voting has been used in varying forms since the 1970s with fundamental benefits over paper based systems such as increased efficiency and reduced errors. At present, the feasibility of blockchain is being explored for effective e-voting.

Even the EC had used a one-way electronic system for service electors (consisting of personnel belonging to the armed forces, central para military forces and central government officers deployed at Indian missions abroad) i.e. Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS) in 2019 Lok Sabha Elections.

Blockchain’s decentralized, transparent, immutable, and encrypted qualities could potentially help minimize election tampering and maximize poll accessibility.

Possible Working:
A blockchain remote voting process would involve voter identification and authorization using a multi-layered IT enabled system (with the help of biometrics and web cameras) at the venue.

After a voter's identity is established by the system, a blockchain enabled personalized e-ballot paper (Smart Contract) will be generated.

When the vote is cast (Smart Contract executed), the ballot would be securely encrypted and a block chain hashtag (#) will be generated. This hashtag notification would be sent to various stakeholders i.e. the candidates and political parties.

Limitations:
Any new technology systems, including those based on blockchain technologies, are vulnerable to cyber-attacks and other security vulnerabilities.

These could cause vote manipulation, paper trail erasure, or electoral chaos.

Furthermore, a voter verification system that uses biometric software, such as facial recognition, could lead to false positives or negatives in voter identification, thus facilitating fraud or disenfranchising citizens.

Blockchain-based voting systems may also entail privacy risks and concerns.

Sunspots
A massive Sunspot group ‘AR2770’, which was detected recently, has emitted minor space flares.

These flares have not caused any major impact on the Earth. However, these have led to minor waves of ionization to ripple through the Earth’s upper atmosphere.

Key Points
Sunspots:
Sunspots (some as large as 50,000 km in diameter) are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun (photosphere). They appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s surface.

However, the temperature of a sunspot is still very hot —around 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit.

Photosphere is a visible surface of the Sun, from which is emitted most of the Sun’s light that reaches Earth directly.

They are relatively cool because they form at areas where magnetic fields are particularly strong. These magnetic fields are so strong that they keep some of the heat within the Sun from reaching the surface.

Magnetic field in such areas is about 2,500 times stronger than Earth’s.

They typically consist of a dark region called the ‘umbra’, which is surrounded by a lighter region called the ‘penumbra’.

In every solar cycle, the number of Sunspots increases and decreases.

The current solar cycle, which began in 2008, is in its ‘solar minimum’ phase, when the number of Sunspots and solar flares is at a routine low.

Solar Flares:
The magnetic field lines near sunspots often tangle, cross, and reorganize. This can cause a sudden explosion of energy called a solar flare.

The solar flare explosion’s energy can be equivalent to a trillion ‘Little boy’ atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

Solar flares release a lot of radiation into space. Solar flares, when powerful enough, can disrupt satellite and radio transmission on the Earth, and more severe ones can cause ‘geomagnetic storms’ that can damage transformers in power grids.

A geomagnetic storm is a major disturbance of Earth’s magnetosphere that occurs when there is a very efficient exchange of energy from the solar wind into the space surrounding Earth.

Magnetosphere is a region around the Earth dominated by the Earth’s magnetic field.

It protects the Earth from solar and cosmic radiation as well as erosion of the atmosphere by the solar wind - the constant flow of charged particles streaming off the Sun.

Solar flares are sometimes accompanied by a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME).

CMEs are huge bubbles of radiation and particles from the Sun’s Corona (outermost region of the Sun’s atmosphere). They explode into space at very high speed when the Sun’s magnetic field lines suddenly reorganize.

They can trigger intense light in the sky on Earth, called auroras.

Some of the energy and small particles travel down the magnetic field lines at the north and south poles into Earth’s atmosphere.

There, the particles interact with gases in the atmosphere resulting in beautiful displays of light in the sky. Oxygen gives off green and red light. Nitrogen glows blue and purple.

The aurora in Earth’s northern atmosphere is called an aurora borealis or northern lights. It’s southern counterpart is called an aurora australis or the southern lights.
China Launches BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
China has formally launched full global services of its BeiDou-3 Navigation Satellite System (BDS).

Key Points
Background:
The name BeiDou comes from Chinese word for the Big Dipper or Plough constellation.

China's BeiDou navigation project was launched in the early 1990s. The system then became operational within China in 2000 and in the Asia-Pacific region in 2012.

The navigation satellite system was completed in three steps: BDS-1 which provided services to China, BDS- 2 to provide services to the Asia-Pacific region and BDS-3 which provides services worldwide.

Features:
A hybrid constellation consisting of around 30 satellites in three kinds of orbits: Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), Inclined Geo-Synchronous Orbit (IGSO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO).

Provides navigation signals of multiple frequencies, and is able to improve service accuracy by using combined multi-frequency signals.

Offers accurate positioning, navigation and timing, as well as short messaging communication, international search and rescue, satellite-based augmentation, ground augmentation and precise point positioning, etc.

The services are used in various fields by China including defence, transportation, agriculture, fishing, and disaster relief.

It will be the fourth global satellite navigation system after the USA GPS, Russia’s GLONASS and European Union’s Galileo.

It is said to be much more accurate than the USA’s GPS.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a general term describing any satellite constellation that provides Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services on a global basis.

Implications
Challenge to the Centrality of the USA: While China says it seeks cooperation with other satellite navigation systems, Beidou is being seen as a rival to America’s GPS, Russia’s GLONASS and the European Union’s Galileo networks.

Military Implications: The development of its own secure and independent navigation system will boost China’s military strength, especially amidst rising US-China tensions.

Economic Implications: The better accuracy and experience of BDS, as claimed by China will lure companies to sign-up for it. As the global market is being increasingly dominated by an information-based economy, China is expected to reap huge economic benefit from BDS.

China’s Hold on Other Nations: China is promoting its use in the countries signed-up for its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Pakistan has already started using BDS. This will certainly give China economic and political leverage over nations adopting this system.

Edge over India: This has also given China a competitive edge over India, whose IRNSS-NavIC is still a regional navigation system.

Importance in Covid Times: The world is becoming heavily dependent on space infrastructure due to the impact of COVID-19 limitations on in-person physical meetings and travel restrictions. Thus, information and space-based services will gain importance in present times.

China’s Authority in Space: The space program of China has seen rapid advancements in past few years with the launch of Tianwen-1 rover mission to Mars. China has also constructed an experimental space station and sent a pair of rovers to the surface of the moon (Chang’e-4). BDS is another step in marking China’s presence in Space.
Bharat Air Fibre: Wireless Internet
Recently, Bharat Air Fibre Services have been inaugurated at Akola in Maharashtra providing the residents wireless internet connections on demand.

Key Points
The Bharat Air Fibre services are being introduced by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) as a part of the Digital India initiative by the Government of India. It is being scaled pan-India.

Aim: To provide BSNL fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) wireless connectivity up to a range of 20 km from the BSNL points of presence.

Features:
The connectivity speed is 100 Mbps and BSNL is offering various broadband plans in wireline and wireless segments.

There is a huge demand for high-speed broadband service in the present situation as there is the migration of people from metro cities to rural areas due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

The service is becoming popular due to Work from Home (WFH), e-learning, online shopping, gaming and entertainment, etc. amidst lockdowns.

BSNL is also providing unlimited free voice calling.

Mechanism: It provides high-speed broadband to subscribers of remote areas by bridging the gap of last-mile connectivity through radio waves.

A vast network of Optical Fibre has been laid by BSNL up to nearest Telephone Exchange or Mobile Tower and from there the connectivity is provided to subscribers over wireless.

Benefits:
Customers at remote locations will be benefitted as BSNL comes with the cheapest services with the support of Telecom Infrastructure Partners (TIPs).

These services are wireless and there are very low chances of interruption in services locally.

BSNL is tying up with local entrepreneurs/unemployed youth on revenue sharing basis thereby generating employment in rural areas.

They will earn a regular monthly income of about one lakh per month thereby becoming self-reliant under the Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative.

This service could be a game-changer for rural areas as with a little integration of Internet of Things (IoT) and sensors, the moisture content of soil can be known on a real-time basis, so that irrigation can be planned, resulting in saving of water and thereby increasing productivity.

Sensors can be tied to the neck of dairy cattle, enabling continuous recording of body temperature so as to know the exact time when milk output is best.
Aspirin to Prevent Cataract
Recently, scientists from the Institute of Nano Science & Technology (INST) have developed nanorods from the Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) Aspirin to prevent cataracts in an economical and less complicated way.

Aspirin is a popular medication used to reduce pain, fever, or inflammation and now it has been found to be an effective non–invasive small molecule-based nanotherapeutics against cataract.

INST is an autonomous institute under the Department of Science & Technology, Government of India.

Key Points
Cataract:
It is a major form of blindness that occurs when the structure of crystallin proteins that make up the lens in human eyes deteriorates.

Such deterioration causes damaged or disorganised proteins to aggregate and form a milky blue or brown layer, which ultimately affects lens transparency.

As with aging and under various conditions, the lens protein crystallin aggregates to form opaque structures in the eye lens, which impairs vision and causes cataract.

Thus, prevention of the formation of these aggregates as well as their destruction in the early stage of disease progression is a major treatment strategy for cataracts.

Usage of Aspirin:
The scientists have used the anti-aggregation ability of self-build aspirin nanorods as an effective non –invasive small molecule-based nanotherapeutics against cataract.

It prevents the protein aggregation through biomolecular interactions, which convert it into coils and helices and consequently fail to aggregate.

Significance:
Aspirin nanorods due to their nano-size are expected to enhance bioavailability, improve drug loading, lower toxicity, etc.

Hence, the delivery of the aspirin nanorods as eye drops is going to serve as an effective and viable option to treat cataract non-invasively.

It is easy to use and a low-cost alternative nonsurgical treatment method and will benefit patients in developing countries who cannot access expensive cataract treatments and surgeries.
Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network
The Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN) is being used by the State/UT governments in India to monitor the supply chain of Covid response material.

This has been used with the requisite customization during the Covid pandemic for ensuring continuation of the essential immunization services.

Key Points
About: It is an indigenously developed technology system that digitizes vaccine stocks and monitors the temperature of the cold chain through a smartphone application.

Objective: It is aimed at strengthening immunization supply chain systems across the country.

eVIN aims to support the Government of India’s Universal Immunization Programme by providing real-time information on vaccine stocks and flows, and storage temperatures across all cold chain points in these states.

Implemented by: It is being implemented under the National Health Mission (NHM) by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

The integrated solution combines:
Technology: Online real-time information on vaccine stocks and storage temperature to facilitate evidence-based decision-making.

Governance: Systemizing record keeping, upgrading logistics and encouraging good practices to ensure efficient vaccine logistics management.

Human Resources: To empower the state cold chain network by building the capacities of handlers and managers at each stage of vaccine supply.
Space X Capsule Returns Safely
Recently, two National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken have returned to earth in their SpaceX Dragon capsule named Endeavour, in less than a day after departing the International Space Station (ISS).

Their capsule parachuted into the Gulf of Mexico about 40 miles off the coast of Pensacola, Florida Panhandle (USA), which was one of the approximate locations.

Key Points
It was the first splashdown by the USA astronauts in 45 years, with the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to carry people to and from orbit.

The last time NASA astronauts returned from space to water was on 24th July 1975, in the Pacific to end a joint USA-Soviet mission known as the Apollo-Soyuz.

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the first spaceflight to include two participating nations working together with their own national spacecraft.

The Americans sent up an Apollo command module, while the Soviet launched a Soyuz spacecraft.

Space X Crew Dragon:
It is a reusable spacecraft developed and manufactured by American aerospace manufacturer SpaceX.

SpaceX is a private company founded in 2002 by Elon Musk. Its headquarters is located in Hawthorne, California (USA).

It is the fifth class of the USA spacecraft to take human beings into orbit, after the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle programs.

The rocket Falcon 9 was launched from NASA's Kennedy Space Center on 31st May 2020 and carried the spaceship into the orbit.

The whole mission was carried out under the Demo-2 Mission of NASA and SpaceX.

Significance:
It clears the way for another SpaceX crew launch and possible tourist flights from 2021.

SpaceX has now become the first private company to send humans to orbit who have spent more than two months on the space station.

The landmark mission marked the first time the USA space agency launched humans from American soil since its shuttle program retired in 2011.

Since then, the USA has relied on Russia's space program to launch its astronauts to the space station.
Phase II/III Clinical Trials of Covishield
Recently, the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) has given approval to the Serum Institute of India (SII), Pune to conduct Phase II/III clinical trials of Covishield in India.

SII is the world’s largest maker of vaccines and it has a tie-up with AstraZeneca, the Swedish-British pharma giant, to manufacture the Covid-19 vaccine for low- and middle-income countries.

Key Points
Covishield:
It is the name given to an Oxford-AstraZeneca Covid-19 vaccine candidate which is technically referred to as AZD1222 or ChAdOx 1 nCoV-19.

It is already being tested in the UK, South Africa and Brazil, where participants are being administered two doses nearly a month apart.

It had triggered an immune response in humans against the novel coronavirus in early trials and is considered to be one of the global frontrunners for the Covid-19 vaccine.

Background:
The Subject Expert Committee (SEC) for Covid-19 related therapies of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) felt that the SII needed to take a ‘pan India’ approach while considering trial sites.

It recommended that authorisation to market Covishield should be granted after considering clinical data generated from both the India and international trials.

Trials:
SII can now start its larger phase II/III trials, ahead of other vaccine candidates like Bharat Biotech’s Covaxin and Zydus Cadila’sZyCov-D which are still in phase I/II trials.

However, the exact timings of trial beginning are not clear yet. It would take at least a week to get the ethics committee’s approval before starting the trials. If everything goes well, the vaccine could be out by the end of 2020.

The trials for Covishield will have around 1,600 participants at 18-odd sites across the country including those identified by the National Biopharma Mission and Grand Challenges India Programme.

Current Trend in India:
India continues to improve the Case Fatality Rate (CFR-number of deaths per positive case) and maintain its global position of having one of the lowest Covid-19 fatalities rates.

The current CFR is 2.11%.
Time Capsules under the ground at Ram Temple construction site in Ayodhya
The Ram Janmabhoomi TeerthKshetra Trust has denied reports about placing of a time capsule under the ground at Ram Temple construction site in Ayodhya.

The Time Capsule, also known as Kaal Patra, was supposed to contain the history of Ayodhya and Rama Janma Bhoomi Movement.

Key Points
Time Capsule is a container of any size or shape, which accommodates documents, photos and artefacts typical of the current era and is buried underground, for future generations to unearth.

To ensure that the capsules do not decay they are built using special engineering techniques like steel or aluminium encasing, vacuuming, use of acid-free paper, etc.

The time capsules mostly have a scheduled time for reopening, and are supposed to be buried again after opening, with people of the future adding their own contributions to the time capsule.

The International Time Capsule Society (ITCS), based in the USA and formed in 1990, is now defunct but continues estimating the number of time capsules in the world.

As per its database, there are 10,000-15,000 times capsules worldwide.

Famous Time Capsules in the World
Samuel Adams and Paul Revere Time Capsule: It is the oldest known time capsule from 1795 (USA).

The “Century Safe": The world’s first planned time capsule was established at Philadelphia Centennial Exposition (USA) in 1876. It was opened and resealed in 1976.

The Crypt of Civilization in Georgia: It was built around 1940 at Oglethorpe University in Brookhaven, Georgia and is scheduled for opening in the year 8113 AD. It is a project to preserve all human knowledge and was the brainchild of Thornwell Jacobs, also known as father of time capsules.

The Voyager and Voyager II Spacecraft: They are currently circling on the edge of our solar system. These capsules were created by NASA to be seen by future generations.

Time Capsules in India
Outside the Red Fort: This was placed underground in 1972 by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, was dug out by the subsequent government in 1977. It raised a controversy as it was said to glorify Gandhi Nehru family in indian History.

At IIT Kanpur Campus: This time capsule was buried on 6th March, 2010 containing details on IIT Kanpur in the form of documents, photographs, and films.

At The Alexandra Girls’ English Institution, Mumbai: It was set up in the 19th century and is scheduled to be opened in 2062. It contains information on the school.

At Jalandhar’s Lovely Public University: It was buried in January 2019 and contains 100 items that represent modern-day technology in India.

Significance
Time Capsules are intended as a method of communication with future people.

They are also supposed to help future archaeologists, anthropologists, or historians in knowing about the past human civilisation.

Criticism
Most intentional time capsules are filled with a lopsided view of history. They are often politically motivated and glorify the people who planted them.

They cannot be regarded as facts and are not very reliable. The information in time capsules has to be verified with other sources of information.

Many time capsules which have been unearthed were filled with junk telling little about the people of the time.
RaTG13 Sarbecovirus
According to a recent study published in Nature Microbiology, the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has been circulating unnoticed in bats for decades.

Bats have been the ‘primary reservoirs’ for SARS-CoV-2, which is likely to have diverged from closely related bat viruses called the RaTG13 sarbecovirus, 40-70 years ago.

Key Points
The current study confirms an earlier Chinese study and also suggests the probable time of divergence of the two viruses.

According to that Chinese study, SARS-CoV-2 is most closely related to RaTG13, which was isolated from a horseshoe bat in Yunnan province in 2013.

Based on the nearly 96% genome sequence identity between SARS-CoV-2 and RaTG13, it was held that an origin in bats is probable for the Covid-19 outbreak.

SARS-CoV-2 has not arisen from recombination of any sarbecovirus.

Recombination: It is a process by which pieces of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are broken and recombined to produce new combinations of alleles (forms of a gene). This recombination process creates genetic diversity at the level of genes that reflects differences in the DNA sequences of different organisms.

The ability of the spike protein in the virus to bind to Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) human receptors had emerged within bats and is an ancestral trait shared with bat viruses and not one acquired recently via recombination.

The results of the study suggest the presence of a ‘single lineage’ circulating in bats with properties that allowed it to infect human cells.

This was also the case with the bat sarbecoviruses related to the 2002 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) lineage.

Methodology:
The researchers analysed the evolutionary history of SARS-CoV-2 using genomic data on sarbecoviruses.

They employed three approaches to identify regions in the virus that had not undergone recombination and that could be used to reconstruct its evolution.

All approaches suggest that RaTG13 and SARS-CoV-2 share a single ancestral lineage and estimate that SARS-CoV-2 genetically diverged from related bat sarbecoviruses in 1948, 1969 and 1982.

Challenging Assumptions:
The study challenged the idea of pangolins serving as an intermediate host where the virus would have acquired its ability to infect human cells thus facilitating the jump into humans.

It is possible that pangolins could have been a medium for the transmission to humans, but there is no evidence that pangolins facilitated adaptation to humans by being an intermediate host.

Current evidence is consistent with the idea that the virus evolved in bats and enabled itself to replicate in the upper respiratory tract of both humans and pangolins.

Snakes were thought to have served as intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2 as well but the present study has found no evidence to support this hypothesis.

Concerns:
The long divergence period raises the possibility of other undocumented virus lineages circulating in horseshoe bats that have the potential to jump from bats to humans.

Different and yet unstudied bat sarbecoviruses that have descended from the SARS-CoV-2/RaTG13 common ancestor form a clade with properties to infect many different mammals, including humans.

Due to the lack of better sampling, it is impossible to estimate whether or how many of these additional lineages exist.

The diversity and dynamic process of recombination amongst lineages in the bat reservoir makes identifying viruses difficult.

Many species of bat harbour several viruses which can cross over to new hosts. With the disruptions of their habitats, humans will face more such threats.
SFTS Infection in China
Recently, deaths and infections have been reported due to the Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome (SFTS) in East China’s Jiangsu and Anhui provinces.

The new health threat emerges amidst the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic which also emerged in China first.

Key Points
SFTS is caused by the Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus (SFTSV) which belongs to the Bunyavirus family and is transmitted to humans through tick bites.

A tick called Asian Longhorned Tick (Haemaphysalislongicornis) is believed to be the primary vector (carrier) of the virus.

The virus is often transmitted to humans from animals like goats, cattle, deer and sheep and regular contact with these animals makes farmers, hunters and pet owners vulnerable to the disease.

Despite being infected by the virus, animals generally do not show any symptoms associated with SFTSV.

Origin and Spread:
The virus was first identified in China over a decade ago and the first few cases were reported in rural areas of Hubei and Henan provinces in 2009.

Researchers identified the virus by examining blood samples obtained from a cluster of people exhibiting similar symptoms.

The virus eventually travelled to other East Asian nations, including Japan and South Korea, significantly raising the total number of cases.

Due to more awareness about the health risks posed by tick bites, the fatality rate of the infection has started to drop significantly.

Incubation Period:
It is the interval between being infected and showing symptoms. For SFTS, the incubation period is anywhere between 7 and 13 days.

The disease usually spreads between March and November and the total number of infections generally peaks between April and July.

Symptoms:
Fever, fatigue, chill, headache, nausea, myalgia (muscle pain), diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal pain, gingival haemorrhage, conjunctival congestion, etc.

Early warning signs include severe fever, thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) and leukocytopenia (low white blood cell count).

More serious cases include multi-organ failure, hemorrhagic manifestation and the appearance of symptoms related to Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases.

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord and it controls most functions of the body and mind.

Prevention:
Avoid wearing shorts while walking through tall grass, the woods, and any other environment where ticks are likely to thrive.

Using tick-repellent lotions and sprays on the exposed body parts.

Treatment:
There is no vaccine to treat the disease yet. However, the antiviral drug Ribavirin is known to be effective in treating the illness.

Ribavirin is also used to treat Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) which is also transmitted by ticks.

Current Case Fatality Rate:
It rests between approximately 16%-30%.

SFTS has been listed among the top 10 priority diseases blueprint by the World Health Organisation (WHO) due to its fast spreading rate and high fatality rate.

WHO’s Research and Development Blueprint identifies diseases and pathogens that have the potential to cause a public health emergency but lack effective treatments and vaccines.

This watchlist for priority research and development includes Ebola, several other hemorrhagic fevers, Zika, Nipah, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and disease X, which represents the need to prepare for an unknown pathogen that could cause a serious epidemic.
Schizophrenia and its Possible Cause
Recently, the Schizophrenia Research Foundation (SCARF) and Jeevan Stem Cell Foundation, Chennai have carried out a pilot study on people of specific ethnicity with schizophrenia.

The study finds an association of specific alleles (variants of specific genes) with the disease.

Key Points
Findings of the Current Study:
It holds that HLA is important for the proper functioning of the immune system and its variations can lead to immunological abnormalities.

In autoimmune diseases, when the body creates antibodies against the NMDA receptors in the brain, these antibodies disrupt normal brain signalling and cause brain swelling or encephalitis affecting both men and women and can lead to schizophrenia.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NDMA) receptor is a glutamate receptor and ion channel protein found in nerve cells and is important for memory functions.

Researchers found a higher frequency of HLA class I alleles in individuals with schizophrenia.

Individuals carrying these alleles could be susceptible to schizophrenia.

They also found a negative correlation with some alleles which were found in lower frequency in individuals with schizophrenia.

These could be protective alleles in schizophrenia.

For the first time, the amino acids level in HLA molecules among the patients were also studied.

Researchers held that the reasons or causes for schizophrenia are not entirely clear, but perhaps selection and ‘memory’ of past selection pressures (infections) play a role in its onset.

However, there is a need for further studies of the exact factors causing the disorder. The occurrence of different alleles itself is not a problem but finding the exact allele causing it, is a challenge.

Earlier studies had indicated that different alleles may be involved in different ethnic groups. For example, studies in Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and Japan point to involvement of different alleles responsible for risk factor to schizophrenia.
Volcanoes on Venus
According to a recent study, published in Nature Geoscience, Venus is still geologically active.

Key Points
The study identified 37 active volcanoes, in the form of ring-like structures known as coronae, on the surface of Venus.

The coronae form when plumes of hot material deep inside the planet rise through the mantle layer and crust.

Earlier, it was believed that the surface of Venus had no geological activity. However, scientists have known for some time that Venus has a younger surface than planets like Mars and Mercury, which have cold interiors.

The new study will help to identify target areas for future missions such as Europe's EnVision that is scheduled to launch in 2032.

EnVision aims at determining the level and nature of the geological activity and the sequence of events that generated the surface features of Venus.